Austria Land Of
Music[1]
Introduction
Austria and
music is looked upon as almost synonymous in meaning. The historic reason for
this may be found in that unique concentration of musical genius and power
which manifested itself around 1800 and gave rise to what came to be known as
“Viennese Classicism”.
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| Mozart family on tour Watercolor by Carmontelle 1763 |
Famous
conducter Bruno Walter (1876-1962) wrote “That Mozart, Haydn, Schubert, Lanner,
Johann Strauss, Bruckner, and Brahms both established firm roots in Vienna,
which became their spiritual home and inspired their mighty works, shows in
what special and significant sense Austria must be regarded as the spiritual
home of music.”
The climate
and the landscape, as well as the geographical and ethnographical situation of
the country, which made it both bulwark and bridge at various moments in its
history, all played their part. The intermingling of ethnic groups and cultures
within the multi-racial Hapsburg empire from the end of Middle Ages until the
early 20th century may well have contributed towards the emergence of the
artistic gifts which are a marked feature of the individual Austrian.
From Earliest
Times to the Renaissance
Austria has
thousands of years past of music. There are very earliest instruments 5000
years ago used for cult purposes and for all kind of everyday practices and for
army. In early Christendom, The monastery of St. Peter in Salzburg fostered
musical development in Austria and has the distinction being the only monastery
erected in German-speaking area of Europe to enjoy an uninterrupted existence
from the end of 7th century up to the present day. In addition, there were some
other monasteries which became centers of musical activity.
By the 12th
century, secular music (“Minnesinger”s) became popular. The secular rulers
became increasingly important as patrons of artists and arts. This music was
played in courts of these rulers by some of them or by knights. Their written
music is preserved but music of the lesser orders (peasants and the growing
middle classes) did not; because they were oral[2].
In the
middle of the 15th century, when the new book printing processes became firmly
established that written music found wider popularity. The Reformation made use
of this modern technique to introduce its new teachings by means of hymns
written and sung in the language understood by the wide mass of the population.
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| Portrait of Beethoven by Christian Hornemann, 1803 |
It is known
that polyphony is existed in Austria dates from 1300’s.
The reign
of Emperor Maximilian I. was an epoch of grandoise cultural flowering. In 1498
Maximilian reorganised his “Hofkapelle” (official court orchestra) and
transferred it from Innsbruck to Vienna, a step which meant that music and
practically all musical activities were officially moved to Vienna. [3]
The Hofkapelle which was founded in Graz in 1564 was brought to Vienna by Holy
Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II after his election in 1619. The record for the longest
period of uninterrupted musical activity at a noble Austrian court is held by
the Hofkapelle of the prince Arcbishop Wolf Dietrich permanently employed 24
musicians. Stars among the celebrated names associated with this orchestra are
Leopold Mozart and his son Wolfgang Amadeus who were members of the Salzburg
Hofkapelle in the 18th century.
The new
spirit of the Renaissance which imbued both religious and secular institutions
with a burning interest in knowledge and research of all kinds ensured that in
addition to the courts of the nobility and Church, the universities also became
centers of musical development. The Vienna University, the “Alma Mater
Rudolphina” (founded in 1365 by the Hapsburg Duke Rudolf IV) was one such
centre.
Daily life
for the people living in that period must have been filled with music-making,
if one is to believe the enthusiastic words of Wolfgang Schmeltzl, a
German-born musician who became choirmaster at the Schottenstift in Vienna. In
his “Praise for the City of Vienna” Schmeltzl wrote the following: “Nowhere in
the world can one find more musicians or more musical instruments!”
The Baroque Era
– Austria’s “Glorious Century”
The
euphoria which seized the population once the Turkish peril had been banished,
the force of the Counter-Reformation, and the general prosperity which now set
in, all served to bring about the mighty unfolding of Baroque in the 17th and
18th centuries. In contrast to polyphony and vocal music, monodic (melodic) and
instrumental music became popular.
In Baroque
Era, opera was born in Italy and spread to Vienna. During the reign of Emperor
Leopold I (1658- 1705) alone, over 400 dramatic works were performed. This
stormy enthusiasm for the opera still remains one of the traits of the Viennese
to this day.
The
triumphal progress of the opera brought a fusion with Italian culture.
Comedies, knockabout farces and comic operas, in all of which vocal music
played a large part, ended finally in the incomparable sensitive beauty of
Mozart’s “Magic Flute”. The figure of Hanswurst, the eternal clown and joker,
created in Salzburg and Vienna. The most popular Viennese figure was, however,
the “Liebe Augustin”. Operas composed by Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber, Georg
Muffat, Claudio Monteverdi were performed. The first opera house in north of
the Alps opened in 1650 in Innsbruck.
Several
Hapsburg emperors of this epoch have gained and preserved a reputation as
composers worthy of respect. Leopold I, Charles VI (father of Empress Maria
Theresia) are some of them.
Maria Theresia
(1717-1780)
18th
century is very important of emergence music in Vienna because Mozart lived in
that time period who is the first well-known “freelance artist”. By the 2nd
half of the 18th century, he changed Western Classical Music History. In the
second half of the 18th century, Maria Theresia was the ruler in Vienna who was
a good piano player and a good singer herself like the most of the Habsburgs.
She promoted musicians as well as other artists. In October 13th 1762, Mozart
family (mother and father, 11 year old sister, and 6 year old Wolfgang) had
been given an usually cordial welcome by her at Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna. [4]
A
successful ruler is the one who provides a rich cultural environment to his/her
people. In Baroque Era, under the reign of Leopold I. and Karl VI, there is an unbelievable glory and luxurious
spending in Vienna. The aim is to show empire’s power, since only an empire of
the world can afford all these spendings despite the ongoing war expenditures.
Although there was a war between Prussia and Austria, Viennese people did not
care a little, and the very expensive construction of Schönbrunn Palace was
continuing. The years followed the death of Karl VI witnessed political
upheavels as well as changes in the musical landscape. Operatic tradition in
Vienna felt the impact of war, at the same time the interests and tastes of the
city’s intellectual elité were changing to an ever increasing degree French
theatrical practice. Age of Enlightenment had dawned, and the developments
which now took place in Vienna were unique in their far-reaching impact and
their concentration.
Maria
Thereisa had made a lot of reforms in social and economic life as well as in
music. She opened the gates of the royal theatres to bourgeoisie (rising middle
class), and laid the foundation of state and public theatres. This decision
also helped to refill the emptied court treasury additionally, raised the
loyalty of people to the empire. [5]
Joseph II
(1741-1790)
Joseph II
was a more liberal ruler and he raised the ideals of Enlightenment and pursued
reforms during his reign. In fact, he was also a patron to the music. It was
him (with his mother Maria Theresia) who secured the 12 year old Mozart his
first operatic commission. Again, he gave instructions that Mozart’s opera Don
Giovanni should be staged in Vienna seven months after its first performance in
Prague and commissioned the opera “Cosi Fan Tutte”.
Leopold II
(1747-1792)
Leopold had
no interest in the theatre and music, in contrast to his predecessors, he did
not support musicians much. He wanted to continue of his brother’s reforms more
softly but he died so soon after he was crowned as Emperor. Only three months
previously, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart had died. In the final year of his life Mozart
composed the opera “La Clemenza di Tito” fort he coronation of Leopold II in
Prague. And one year earlier he had travelled to Frankfurt am Main for
Leopold’s instatement as Holy Roman Emperor. History comes full circle: emperor
and composer –politics and art- an eternal cycle of cross-fertilisation.
The Classical
Era in Vienna
Miracles of
artistic and technical creativity were achieved on the theatre stage by the
famous Galli-Bibiena family of architects and painters. In 1729 the advent of
the Italian poet and writer, Matestasio, who was summoned to work in Vienna,
transformed the city into the focal point of European operatic development.
Metastasio’s libretti, set to music by the most famous composers of the time,
reigned supreme in the opera houses of Europe.
In the latter
half of the 18th century a period of great innovation commenced: the strict
bonds imposed on music by virtue of its role in the ceremonials of officialdom
were relaxed. Importance of the Hofkapelle declined, while the ranks of the
middle classes were growing in the field of music. A natural simplicity and
sensitivity of expression in playing music became primary concerns. “One must
play everything in such a way that one is truly moved oneself.” declared
Leopold Mozart. Emperor Joseph II. opened a lot of theatres. New theatres
catering for middle class audiences now followed in rapid succession. Even at
“The Royal Theatre adjoining the Castle” whose opening performance took place
in the presence of Empress Maria Theresia on February 5th 1742, the advent of
the operas of Cristoph Willibald Gluck and later, those of Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart, heralded the dawn of a musical age governed by the tastes of wider
middle class audiences.
Christoph
Willibald Gluck (1714 Palatinate-1787 Vienna) lived in Vienna first in 1735 as
a student of Giovanni Battista Sammartini and second as the conductor of the
Hofkapelle in 1754. He went to Paris under the protection of Marie Antoinette. He
made reforms in opera and influenced musicians after him.
.jpg) |
| Portrait of Joseph Haydn by Thomas Hardy (1792) |
Joseph
Haydn (1732 Rohrau-1809 Vienna) is the first master-musician to be wholly
identified with Viennese classicisim. He was under the service of the princes
of Esterhazy and conducted the orchestra maintained at the court of this noble
family from 1776 to 1790. He created a variety of forms which eventually led to
the shaping of the sonata and the symphony, musical structures such as six
string quartets which later dominated the musical doctrines of the whole of the
19th century. 52 piano sonatas, 24 piano and organ concertos, 104 symphonies
and 83 string quartets. Imperial anthem “God Save Emperor” (1797) which Haydn
composed for the purpose of rising popular patriotic feeling during the
Napoleonics wars, the oratorios “The Creation” (1798) and “The Seasons” (1801)
are the most successful works of him.
Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart (1756 Salzburg-1791 Vienna) was a child prodigy who could play
violin and piano at the age of four and composed music without having learnt
the art of composition astounded the whole Europe. He wrote nearly 600 works
and died at 35. After breaking Salzburg masters he moved to Vienna where,
during the last ten years of his life, he wrote his greatest symphonies and
operas. He wrote that “There is an uncontrollable instinct that pushes me to
Vienna. This is a wonderful place, one of the best around the world where I can
do my work.”[6]
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| Portrait of Mozart by his brother-in-law Joseph Lange |
Ludwig van
Beethoven (1770 Bonn- 1827 Vienna) was the artist of the new age which followed
the Mozart’s maturity. His life demonstrated the path which led from the fate
of the musician dependent on the prince to that of the independent individual.
Beethoven was a virtuoso pianist. He wrote 32 piano sonatas, string quartets,
overtures and concertos, and also 9 symphonies. Rising German literature and poetry
influenced him; the text of his ninth symphony is originally a poem written by
Friedrich Schiller (“An Die Freude”). There is a topographical connection
between Beethoven’s work and the landscape surrounding Vienna, as well as the
city itself. The town of Vienna and the beautiful countryside which surrounds
it, the celebrated woods and the vineyards spreading to the South, all take on
musical form in Beethoven’s Works (for example ”pastoral” symphony).
The Connections
between Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven
Haydn is
like a father to Beethoven and Mozart who is older than them. In spite of that,
Haydn was really influenced by Mozart’s music; there are several similarities
of their music. Haydn always tried to protect and promote Mozart, he dedicated
six string quartets to Haydn, his “father, guide and friend”(1785). Beethoven,
as a 17 year old boy met Mozart. After his death, Joseph Haydn was his teacher
in Vienna. Beethoven’s first three piano sonatas are under the influence of
him, which were dedicated to him too.
Franz Schubert
(1797 Lichtental-1828 Vienna) is the first great composer of the song form
Lied. He was gifted for melody. His music is typically Viennese in character
with the fluctuations between major and minor. Through his compositions the
Lied as an art form was transformed into a serious work in the tradition of
Viennese Classicism. He took the texts from Goethe constructed with the
imaginative piano accompaniment and the realistic interpretation.
Besides the
numerous great musicians Vienna nurtured, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven who are
called Viennese Classics have a much more importance in the history. Because
they created a new music which opened the way of creation what we call today
Western Classical Music. They had patrons either nobles, kings and princes, or
rich bourgeoisies. The most important works they made was made without
restrictions by patrons. When they found suitable conditions for freedom and
artistic creativity, they made the best things.
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| A bust by Hugo Hagen based upon Beethoven's life mask |
The Romantic Era
In the
romantic era, Austria faced with revolutions which affected every aspect of
life, as well as art and music. Prince Metternich, the Austrian state
chancellor became so dictatorial so that growing political and social tensions
finally led to a rebellion. The music of the pre-revolutionary period was
affected by the strictly conservative system prevailing and there was little
creative activity beyond the thorough study and discovery of the great wealth
of classical music which now existed. In the post-revolutionary age, no
important new creative works took society by storm, but new forms of
interpretation were developed. Independent artists, musical virtuosity, concert
as we know today, began to take form.
Societies
encouraged musical activity to sprang up. The most important of these, The
Imperial Austrian Society of Friends of Music (founded in 1812, still remains)
united music lovers from the aristocracy and wealthy middle classes. In 1870, a
new concert house in the first district of Vienna opened its doors for the
first time. It was also felt that public
facilities offering thorough and well-founded music teaching should be
available for everyone, so conservatories were opened.
The
invention of pianoforte whose technical possibilities and richness of sound no
longer be compared with the keyboard instruments of the 18th
century, encouraged the emergence of the virtuoso. Concerts transferred from
the private salons of wealthy to the much larger concert halls.
There are
very important musicians in Romantic Era such as Franz Lizst (1811 -1886) and Johannes
Brahms (1833 Hamburg-1897 Vienna). They have the influence of Vienna very
deeply in their music playing and composing. Each one of them took the heritage
of Classical music, combined with the developments, and finally introduced
different type of music and techniques. They influenced the next generations by
heart.
Post-Romantic
and Modern Era
Post-Romantic
Era witnessed Gustav Mahler (1860 Vienna-1911) and Richard Strauss (1864
Münich-1949). They mostly known for the innovations they made as artistic
interpretation of opera. Like the predecessors, these great musicians enriched
the Classical Music World and made unique contributions.
Second Viennese
School
Arnold
Schönberg (1874 Vienna-1951)
Anton
Webern (1883 Vienna-1945)
Alban Berg
(1885 Vienna-1935)
Social
Networks, Social capital, tacit knowledge and trust, putnam, historical
accidents,
The central
idea of social capital, according to Putnam, is that networks and the
associated norms of reciprocity have value. They have value for the people who
are in them, and they have, at least in some instances, demonstrable
externalities, so that there are both public and private faces of social
capital.[7]
First,
musicians know each other and share information. Or at least, they listen each
other and influenced.
Second, art
patronage. Church, Courts, kings, princes, nobles, rising middle class and
bourgeoisie, Music institutes such as theatres,
Third, education.
monasteries, church choirs, etc.
Musician
families
Path dependency
and lock-in perspectives:
When and how
the simple agglomeration begins to generate externalities?
Mozart and
the suitable economical and social conditions
Secondly,
second viennese school. A strong heritage and tradition of music, collapse of
empire?, search for new, modernization every aspect of life, art, economy,
revolutions
Identify
critical turning points in a cluster’s evolution, investigate the empirical
record of the cluster’s development in detail.
Use of
historical methods requiring an identification of events, activities, and
choices over time based on an analysis of individual career histories, company
histories, network histories, and key industry events and timelines.
[1] Harald
Goertz, Federal Press Service, Vienna, 1984.
This paper is widely based on this book, excerpts from
this book is used throughout the essay.
[2] One
celebrated exception to this oral tradition is known as “Codex Buranus”
(12nd-13rd centuries). Carl Orff used some of these dances, love ballads,
drinking songs, religious plays as basis and inspiration for his “Carmina
Burana”.
[3] This
celebrated orchestra became a scintillating emblem of imperial magnificence at
the court of Vienna. Orchestras maintained at the courts of other members of
Austrian nobility also achieved celebrity: during the reign of Duke Siegmund
the Wealthy an official Hofkapelle was set up in Innsbruck. One of the musical
ensembles directly descended fro this orchestra moved to Mannheim from
Innsbruck in 1720 and formed the basis of what later became the celebrated
Mannheim Orchestra.
[4] Ackerl,
Isabelle and Müll, Elfriede, Austria in
the second half of the eigtheenth century, in December 5th 1991:
Bicentenary of His Death, Federal Press Service of Vienna
Some excerpts have been taken from this source in the
essay.
[5] Maria Publig,
Mozart: Dehanın Gölgesinde, Can Yayınları, 2004, p47-48
[6] Maria
Publig, Mozart:Dehanın Gölgesinde, Can Yayınları, 2004, p215
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